Methods and compositions for the identification of antibiotics that are not susceptible to antibiotic resistance in pseudomonas aeruginosa

ABSTRACT

The “instant evolution” system was initially developed in  E. coli , primarily because of the ease with which this organism can be genetically manipulated. Because many of the functionally important regions of rRNA are conserved among bacteria, drug leads developed against conserved targets in the  E. coli  system may produce broad-spectrum anti-infectives. However, in order the develop a system to product narrow-spectrum anti-infectives, herein we disclose method and compositions for screening  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  16S rRNA in  E. coli  cells. In certain embodiments, a plasmid comprising the 16S rRNA gene from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  t mutated to replace the natural helix 9 region with the corresponding region of the  E. coli  rRNA, is shown to form functional ribosomes in  E. coli  host cells. Li other embodiments, a plasmid, comprising the unmutated 16S rRNA from  Pseudomonas aeruginosa , along with a plasmid containing the  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  S20 protein, can yield functional ribosomes in  E. coli  cells.

BACKGROUND

Ribosomes are composed of one large and one small subunit containing three or four RNA molecules and over fifty proteins. The part of the ribosome that is directly involved in protein synthesis is the ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The ribosomal proteins are responsible for folding the rRNAs into their correct three-dimensional structures. Ribosomes and the protein synthesis process are very similar in all organisms. One difference between bacteria and other organisms, however, is the way that ribosomes recognize mRNA molecules that are ready to be translated. In bacteria, this process involves a base-pairing interaction between several nucleotides near the beginning of the mRNA and an equal number of nucleotides at the end of the ribosomal RNA molecule in the small subunit. The mRNA sequence is known as the Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence and its counterpart on the rRNA is called the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno (ASD) sequence.

There is now extensive biochemical, genetic and phylogenetic evidence indicating that rRNA is directly involved in virtually every aspect of ribosome function (Garrett, R. A., et al. (2000) The Ribosome: Structure, Function, Antibiotics, and Cellular Interactions. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.). Genetic and functional analyses of rRNA mutations in E. coli and most other organisms have been complicated by the presence of multiple rRNA genes and by the occurrence of dominant lethal rRNA mutations. Because there are seven rRNA operons in E. coli, the phenotypic expression of rRNA mutations may be affected by the relative amounts of mutant and wild-type ribosomes in the cell. Thus, detection of mutant phenotypes can be hindered by the presence of wild-type ribosomes. A variety of approaches have been designed to circumvent these problems.

One common approach uses cloned copies of a wild-type rRNA operon (Brosius, J., et al. (1981) Plasmid 6: 112-118; Sigmund, C. D. et al. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79: 5602-5606). Several groups have used this system to detect phenotypic differences caused by a high level of expression of mutant ribosomes. Recently, a strain of E. coli was constructed in which the only supply of ribosomal RNA was plasmid encoded (Asai, T., (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181: 3803-3809). This system has been used to study transcriptional regulation of rRNA synthesis, as well as ribosomal RNA function (Voulgaris, J., et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181: 4170-4175; Koosha, H., et al. (2000) RNA. 6: 1166-1173; Sergiev, P. V., et al. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 299: 379-389; O'Connor, M. et al. (2001) Nucl. Acids Res. 29: 1420-1425; O'Connor, M., et al. (2001) Nucl. Acids Res. 29: 710-715; Vila-Sanjurjo, A. et al. (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 308: 457-463); Morosyuk S. V., et al. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 300 (1):113-126; Morosyuk S. V., et al. (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 307 (1):197-210; and Morosyuk S. V., et al. (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 307 (1):211-228. Hui et al. showed that mRNA could be directed to a specific subset of plasmid-encoded ribosomes by altering the message binding site (MBS) of the ribosome while at the same time altering the ribosome binding site (RBS) of an mRNA (Hui, A., et al. (1987) Methods Enzymol. 153: 432-452).

Although each of the above methods has contributed significantly to the understanding of rRNA function, progress in this field has been hampered both by the complexity of translation and by difficulty in applying standard genetic selection techniques to these systems.

Resistance to antibiotics, a matter of growing concern, is caused partly by antibiotic overuse. According to a study published by the Journal of the American Medical Association in 2001, between 1989 to 1999 American adults made some 6.7 million visits a year to the doctor for sore throat. In 73% of those visits, the study found, the patient was treated with antibiotics, though only 5%-17% of sore throats are caused by bacterial infections, the only kind that respond to antibiotics. Macrolide antibiotics in particular are becoming extremely popular for treatment of upper respiratory infections, in part because of their typically short, convenient course of treatment. Research has linked such vast use to a rise in resistant bacteria and the recent development of multiple drug resistance has underscored the need for antibiotics which are highly specific and refractory to the development of drug resistance.

Microorganisms can be resistant to antibiotics by four mechanisms. First, resistance can occur by reducing the amount of antibiotic that accumulates in the cell. Cells can accomplish this by either reducing the uptake of the antibiotic into the cell or by pumping the antibiotic out of the cell. Uptake mediated resistance often occurs, because a particular organism does not have the antibiotic transport protein on the cell surface or occasionally when the constituents of the membrane are mutated in a way that interferes with transport of the antibiotic into a cell. Uptake mediated resistance is only possible in instances where the drug gains entry through a nonessential transport molecule. Efflux mechanisms of antibiotic resistance occur via transporter proteins. These can be highly specific transporters that transport a particular antibiotic, such as tetracycline, out of the cell or they can be more general transporters that transport groups of molecules with similar characteristics out of the cell. The most notorious example of a nonspecific transporter is the multi drug resistance transporter (MDR).

Inactivating the antibiotic is another mechanism by which microorganisms can become resistant to antibiotics. Antibiotic inactivation is accomplished when an enzyme in the cell chemically alters the antibiotic so that it no longer binds to its intended target. These enzymes are usually very specific and have evolved over millions of years, along with the antibiotics that they inactivate. Examples of antibiotics that are enzymatically inactivated are penicillin, chloramphenicol, and kanamycin.

Resistance can also occur by modifying or overproducing the target site. The target molecule of the antibiotic is either mutated or chemically modified so that it no long binds the antibiotic. This is possible only if modification of the target does not interfere with normal cellular functions. Target site overproduction is less common but can also produce cells that are resistant to antibiotics.

Lastly, target bypass is a mechanism by which microorganisms can become resistant to antibiotics. In bypass mechanisms, two metabolic pathways or targets exist in the cell and one is not sensitive to the antibiotic. Treatment with the antibiotic selects cells with more reliance on the second, antibiotic-resistant pathway.

Among these mechanisms, the greatest concern for new antibiotic development is target site modification. Enzymatic inactivation and specific transport mechanisms require the existence of a substrate specific enzyme to inactivate or transport the antibiotic out of the cell. Enzymes have evolved over millions of years in response to naturally occurring antibiotics. Since microorganisms cannot spontaneously generate new enzymes, these mechanisms are unlikely to pose a significant threat to the development of new synthetic antibiotics. Target bypass only occurs in cells where redundant metabolic pathways exist. As understanding of the MDR transporters increases, it is increasingly possible to develop drugs that are not transported out of the cell by them. Thus, target site modification poses the greatest risk for the development of antibiotic resistance for new classes of antibiotic and this is particularly true for those antibiotics that target ribosomes. The only new class of antibiotics in thirty-five years, the oxazolidinones, is a recent example of an antibiotic that has been compromised because of target site modification. Resistant strains containing a single mutation in rRNA developed within seven months of its use in the clinical settings.

SUMMARY

The “instant evolution” system was initially developed in E. coli primarily because of the ease with which this organism can be genetically manipulated. [WO 2004/003511.] Because many of the functionally important regions of rRNA are conserved among bacteria, drug leads developed against conserved targets in the E. coli system may produce broad-spectrum anti-infectives. However, in order to develop a system to produce narrow-spectrum anti-infectives, provided herein are methods and compositions for screening Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA in E. coli cells. In certain embodiments, a plasmid comprising the 16S rRNA gene from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, mutated to replace the natural helix 9 region with the corresponding region of the E. coli rRNA, is provided to form functional ribosomes in E. coli host cells. In other embodiments, a plasmid, comprising the unmutated 16S rRNA from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, along with a plasmid containing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 protein, is provided which can yield functional ribosomes in E. coli cells.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 depicts the plasmid construct Pa 16S pRNA228, wherein the E. coli 16S is replaced with the P. aeruginosa between the E. coli Bcll and EstEII sites. The locations of specific sites in Pa 16S pRNA228 are as follows: the 16S rRNA E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 1-14 & 1499-1536; the 16S rRNA P. aeruginosa rrnC operon corresponds to nucleic acids 15-1498; the 16S MBS (message binding sequence) GGGAU corresponds to nucleic acids 1530-1534; the 16S-23S spacer region corresponds to nucleic acids 1537-1976; the 23S rRNA of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 1977-4880; the 23S-5S spacer region corresponds to nucleic acids 4881-4972; the 5S rRNA of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 4973-5092; the terminator T1 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 5096-5139; the terminator T2 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 5271-5299; the bla (β-lactamase; ampicillin resistance) corresponds to nucleic acids 6462-7319; the replication origin corresponds to nucleic acids 7482-8096; the rop (Rop protein) corresponds to nucleic acids 8509-8700; the GFP corresponds to nucleic acids 9113-10088; the GFP RBS (ribosome binding sequence) AUCCC corresponds to nucleic acids 10096-10100; the trp^(c) promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 10117-10157; the trp^(c) promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 10632-10672; the CAT RBS AUCCC corresponds to nucleic acids 10689-10693; the cam (chloramphenicol acetyltransferase: CAT) corresponds to nucleic acids 10701-11630; the lacI^(q) promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 11670-11747; the lacI^(q) (lac repressor) corresponds to nucleic acids 11748-12830; and the lacUV5 promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 12873-12914.

FIG. 2 depicts the plasmid construct Pa 16S Ec H9 pRNA228 wherein the E. coli 16S is replaced with the P. aeruginosa between the E. coli Bcll and EstEII sites and the P. aeruginosa helix 9 (H9) sequence is replaced with the E. coli H9 sequence. In other words, the plasmid is made up of E. coli rRNA sequence at positions 1-14, 176-188 and 1499-1536; and P. aeruginosa rRNA sequence at positions 15-175 and 189-1489. The E. coli H9 sequence is AUAACGUCGCAAGACCAAA (SEQ ID NO: 1) and the P. aeruginosa H9 sequence is AUACGUCCUGAGGGAGAAA (SEQ ID NO: 2). 10 mutations were made and they are denoted with an underline in the P. aeruginosa H9 sequence shown above.

FIG. 3 depicts a pKan5-T1T2 vector wherein the E. coli terminators from pRNA228 were moved (via PCR) into the multicloning site of pKAN5 using restriction enzymes XbaI and EcoRI. The locations of specific sites in pKan5-T1T2 are as follows: the replication origin corresponds to nucleic acids 723-1268; aph (3′)-la (kanamycin resistance) corresponds to nucleic acids 1862-2677; araC corresponds to nucleic acids 2950-3828; Pc (the araC promoter) corresponds to nucleic acids 3979-4005; the pBAD promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 4104-4131; the terminator T1 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 4163-4206; and the terminator T2 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 4338-4366.

FIG. 4 depicts a pKan5 vector wherein the E. coli terminators from pRNA228 were moved (via PCR) into the multicloning site of pKan5 using restriction enzymes XbaI and EcoRI; and the P. aeruginosa S20 protein was also cloned into the vector using enzymes NotI and XbaI (denoted herein as “pKanPa-S20”). The locations of specific sites in pKan5 Pa-S20 are as follows: the replication origin corresponds to nucleic acids 723-1268; aph (3′)-la (kanamycin resistance) corresponds to nucleic acids 1862-2677; araC corresponds to nucleic acids 2950-3828; Pc (the araC promoter) corresponds to nucleic acids 3979-4005; the pBAD promoter corresponds to nucleic acids 4104-4131; the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (GAGGA) corresponds to nucleic acids 4168-4172; P. aeruginosa S20 corresponds to 4181-4453; the terminator T1 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 4463-4506; and the terminator T2 of E. coli rrnB operon corresponds to nucleic acids 4638-4666.

FIG. 5 depicts the results of green fluorescent protein (GFP) assays for P. aeruginosa constructs.

FIGS. 6 a-f depict the sequence of the plasmid depicted in FIG. 1 (SEQ ID NO: 3).

FIGS. 7 a-f depict the sequence of the plasmid depicted in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 4).

FIGS. 8 a-b depict the sequence of the plasmid depicted in FIG. 3 (SEQ ID NO: 5).

FIGS. 9 a-b depict the sequence of the plasmid depicted in FIG. 4 (SEQ ID NO: 6).

FIG. 10 depicts novel mutant anti-Shine-Dalgarno (ASD) sequences and novel mutant Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequences of the present invention. FIG. 10 also shows a sequence analysis of chloramphenicol resistant isolates. The mutated nucleotides are underlined and potential duplex formations are boxed. CAT activity was measured twice for each culture and the unit is CPM/0.1 μL of culture/OD600. Induction was measured by dividing CAT activity in induced cells with CAT activity in uninduced cells. A −1 indicates no induction, while a +1 indicates induction with 1 mM IPTG.

FIG. 11 depicts novel mutant ASD sequences and novel mutant SD sequences of the present invention. FIG. 11 also shows a sequence analysis of CAT mRNA mutants. Potential duplex formations are boxed and the mutated nucleotides are underlined. The start codon (AUG) is in bold. A −1 indicates no induction, while a +1 indicates induction with 1 mM IPTG.

FIGS. 12 a-b depicts novel mutant ASD sequences and novel mutant SD sequences of the present invention.

FIG. 13 depicts the nucleotide differences between E. coli and P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA. The P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA is shown in full, with the E. coli sequence differences shown in circles.

FIG. 14 depicts a tabulation of 16s rRNA hybrid P. aeruginosa and E. coli sequences and the resulting measured GFP percentage. (GFP 100% was set for E. coli sequence with no P. aeruginosa sequence.) The last entry in the table demonstrates the significance of nucleotides 176-188; this is shown pictorially in FIG. 15.

FIG. 15 depicts a mutant P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA wherein the helix 9 (H9) nucleotides, 176-188 (boxed in the lower left), have been replaced with the corresponding E. coli H9 nucleotides.

FIG. 16 depicts the ribosomal protein S20 binding site on P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA.

FIG. 17 depicts an S20 protein alignment of E. coli vs. P. aeruginosa.

FIG. 18 depicts a schematic of the addition of a plasmid containing the S20 gene into transformed in cells containing the 16S rRNA of E. coli and P. aeruginosa, and the measurement of resulting activity by GFP.

In addition, FIGS. 1-26 of WO 2004/003511 (some of which may also be found in Lee, K., et al. Genetic Approaches to Studying Protein Synthesis: Effects of Mutations at Pseudouridine 516 and A535 in Escherichia coli 16S rRNA. Symposium: Translational Control: A. Mechanistic Perspective at the Experimental Biology 2001 Meeting (2001); and Lee, K., et al., J. Mol. Biol. 269: 732-743 (1997)) are expressly incorporated herein by reference.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Overview. The “instant evolution” system (as described in WO 2004/003511; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety) was initially developed in E. coli, primarily because of the ease with which this organism can be genetically manipulated. Because many of the functionally important regions of rRNA are conserved among bacteria, drug leads developed against conserved targets in the E. coli system may produce broad-spectrum anti-infectives.

Recently, however, emphasis has been placed on the development of narrow spectrum antimicrobials because of the reduced likeliness of adverse effects and because resistance to narrow-spectrum antibiotics is less likely to occur. Several rRNA genes from human pathogens were therefore tested to see whether their genes could be expressed in E. coli.

Compositions and Methods of the Invention. In one embodiment, compositions and methods are provided to identify functional mutant P. aeruginosa ribosomes suitable as drug targets. The compositions and methods of the invention allow for the expression of P. aeruginosa ribosomes in E. coli. The compositions and methods further allow for the isolation and analysis of mutations that would normally be lethal and allow direct selection of rRNA mutants with predetermined levels of ribosome function. The compositions and methods of the present invention may additionally be used to identify antibiotics to treat generally and/or selectively, human pathogens such as P. aeruginosa.

According to one embodiment of the invention, a functional genomics database for 16S rRNA genes of a variety of species is generated. In particular, the rRNA gene is randomly mutated using a generalized mutational strategy. A host E. coli cell is then transformed with a mutagenized plasmid of the invention comprising: an P. aeruginosa rRNA gene having a mutant ASD sequence, the mutated P. aeruginosa rRNA gene, and a genetically engineered gene which encodes a selectable marker having a mutant SD sequence. In certain embodiments, said P. aeruginosa DNA is further modified so as to replace helix 9 with the corresponding E. coli helix (FIG. 15); in other embodiments the host cell is further transformed with a plasmid encoding the P. aeruginosa S20 gene. The selectable marker gene, such as CAT, may be used to select mutants that are functional, e.g., by plating the transformed cells onto growth medium containing chloramphenicol. The mutant rRNA genes contained in each plasmid DNA of the individual clones from each colony are selected and characterized. The function of each of the mutant rRNA genes is assessed by measuring the amount of an additional selectable marker gene, such as GFP, produced by each clone upon induction of the rRNA operon. A functional genomics database may thus be assembled, which contains the sequence and functional data of the functional mutant rRNA genes. In particular, functionally important regions of the rRNA gene that will serve as drug targets are identified by comparing the sequences of the functional genomics database and correlating the sequence with the amount of GFP protein produced.

In another embodiment, the nucleotides in the functionally important target regions identified in the above methods may be simultaneously randomly mutated, e.g., by using standard methods of molecular mutagenesis, and cloned into a plasmid of the invention to form a plasmid pool containing random mutations at each of the nucleotide positions in the target region. The resulting pool of plasmids containing random mutations is then used to transform cells, e.g., E. coli cells, and form a library of clones, each of which contains a unique combination of mutations in the target region. The library of mutant clones are grown in the presence of IPTG to induce production of the mutant rRNA genes and a selectable marker is used, such as CAT, to select clones of rRNA mutants containing nucleotide combinations of the target region that produce functional ribosomes. The rRNA genes producing functional ribosomes are sequenced and may be incorporated into a database.

In yet another embodiment, a series of oligonucleotides may be synthesized that contain the functionally-important nucleotides and nucleotide motifs within the target region and may be used to sequentially screen compounds and compound libraries to identify compounds that recognize (bind to) the functionally important sequences and motifs. The compounds that bind to all of the oligonucleotides are then counter-screened against oligonucleotides and/or other RNA containing molecules to identify drug candidates. Drug candidates selected by the methods of the present invention are thus capable of recognizing all of the functional variants of the target sequence, i.e., the target cannot be mutated in a way that the drug cannot bind, without causing loss of function to the ribosome.

In still another embodiment, after the first stage mutagenesis of the entire rRNA is performed using techniques known in the art, e.g., error-prone PCR mutagenesis, the mutants are analyzed to identify regions within the rRNA that are important for function. These regions are then sorted based on their phylogenetic conservation, as described herein, and are then used for further mutagenesis.

Ribosomal RNA sequences from each species are different and the more closely related two species are, the more their rRNAs are alike. For instance, humans and monkeys have very similar rRNA sequences, but humans and bacteria have very different rRNA sequences. These differences may be utilized for the development of very specific drugs with a narrow spectrum of action and also for the development of broad-spectrum drugs that inhibit large groups of organisms that are only distantly related, such as all bacteria.

In another embodiment, the functionally important regions identified above are divided into groups based upon whether or not they occur in closely related groups of organisms. For instance, some regions of rRNA are found in all bacteria but not in other organisms. Other areas of rRNA are found only in closely related groups of bacteria, such as all of the members of a particular species, e.g., members of the genus Mycobacterium or Streptococcus.

In a further embodiment, the regions found in very large groups of organisms, e.g., all bacteria or all fungi, are used to develop broad-spectrum antibiotics that may be used to treat infections from a large number of organisms within that group. The methods of the present invention may be performed on these regions and functional mutant ribosomes identified. These functional mutant ribosomes may be screened, for example, with compound libraries.

In yet another embodiment, regions that are located only in relatively small groups of organisms, such as all members of the genus Streptococcus or all members of the genus Mycobacterium, may be used to design narrow spectrum antibiotics that will only inhibit the growth of organisms that fall within these smaller groups. The methods of the present invention may be performed on these regions and functional mutant ribosomes identified. These functional mutant ribosomes will be screened, e.g., compound libraries.

The invention provides novel plasmid constructs, e.g. those depicted in FIGS. 1 to 4. In addition, the novel plasmid constructs of the present invention employ novel mutant anti-Shrine-Delgarno (ASD) and mutant Shine-Delgarno (SD) sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and 12. The mutant ASD and mutant SD sequences may be used as mutually compatible pairs (see FIGS. 10, 11 and 12). It will be appreciated that the mutually compatible pairs of mutant ASD and SD sequences interact as pairs in the form of RNA, to permit translation of only the mRNAs containing the altered SD sequence.

Definitions. For convenience, certain terms employed in the specification, examples, and appended claims are collected here.

The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e. to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

An “inducible” promoter is a nucleotide sequence which, when operably linked with a polynucleotide which encodes or specifies a gene product, causes the gene product to be produced in a living cell substantially only when an inducer which corresponds to the promoter is present in the cell.

As used herein, the term “mutation” includes an alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a given gene or regulatory sequence from the naturally occurring or normal nucleotide sequence. A mutation may be a single nucleotide alteration (e.g., deletion, insertion, substitution, including a point mutation), or a deletion, insertion, or substitution of a number of nucleotides.

By the term “selectable marker” is meant a gene whose expression allows one to identify functional mutant ribosomes. Useful selectable markers are well known in the art and include, for example, antibiotic and herbicide resistance genes, gas concentrations, nutrients, and waste products. Specific examples of such genes are disclosed in Weising et al. Weising, K, et al., (1988) Ann Rev of Genetics 22:421-478; the contents of which are incorporated by reference. Examples of selectable marker genes are genes encoding a protein such as G418 and hygromycin which confer resistance to certain drugs, for example, β-galactosidase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, or firefly luciferase. Transcription of the selectable marker gene is monitored by changes in the concentration of the selectable marker protein such as β-galactosidase, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, or firefly luciferase. If the selectable marker gene encodes a protein conferring antibiotic resistance such as neomycin resistance transformant cells can be selected with G418. Cells that have incorporated the selectable marker gene will survive, while the other cells die. This makes it possible to visualize and assay for expression of recombinant expression vectors of the invention and in particular to determine the effect of a mutation on expression and phenotype. It will be appreciated that selectable markers can be introduced on a separate vector from the nucleic acid of interest.

The term ‘Gram-positive bacteria’ is an art recognized term for bacteria characterized by having as part of their cell wall structure peptidoglycan as well as polysaccharides and/or teichoic acids and are characterized by their blue-violet color reaction in the Gram-staining procedure. Representative Gram-positive bacteria include: Actinomyces spp., Bacillus anthracis, Bifidobacterium spp., Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium spp., Clostridium tetani, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Corynebacterium jeikeium, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Eubacterium spp., Gardnerella vaginalis, Gemella morbillorum, Leuconostoc spp., Mycobacterium abcessus, Mycobacterium avium complex, Mycobacterium chelonae, Mycobacterium fortuitum, Mycobacterium haemophilium, Mycobacterium kansasii, Mycobacteriuni leprae, Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium scrofulaceum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium terrae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium ulcerans, Nocardia spp., Peptococcus niger, Peptostreptococcus spp., Proprionibacterium spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus cohnii, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus lugdanensis, Staphylococcus saccharolyticus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus schleiferi, Staphylococcus similans, Staphylococcus warneri, Staphylococcus xylosus, Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus), Streptococcus anginosus, Streptococcus bovis, Streptococcus canis, Streptococcus equi, Streptococcus milleri, Streptococcus mitior, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus sanguis.

The term “Gram-negative bacteria” is an art recognized term for bacteria characterized by the presence of a double membrane surrounding each bacterial cell. Representative Gram-negative bacteria include Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Aeromonas hydrophila, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, Bacteroides, Bacteroides fragilis, Bartonella bacilliformis, Bordetella spp., Borrelia burgdorferi, Branhamella catarrhalis, Brucella spp., Campylobacter spp., Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chromobacterium violaceum, Citrobacter spp., Eikenella corrodens, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Flavobacterium meningosepticum, Fusobacterium spp., Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus spp., Helicobacter pylori, Klebsiella spp., Legionella spp., Leptospira spp., Moraxella catarrhalis, Morganella morganii, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Pasteurella multocida, Plesiomonas shigelloides, Prevotella spp., Proteus spp., Providencia rettgeri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas spp., Rickettsia prowazekii, Rickettsia rickettsii, Rochalimaea spp., Salmonella spp., Salinonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, Shigella spp., Treponema carateum, Treponema pallidum, Treponema pallidum endeinicuin, Treponema pertenue, Veillonella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio vulnificus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Yersinia pestis.

Isolated Nucleic Acid Molecules. As used herein, the term “nucleic acid molecule” is intended to include DNA molecules (e.g., cDNA or genomic DNA) and RNA molecules (e.g., mRNA) and analogs of the DNA or RNA generated using nucleotide analogs. The nucleic acid molecule can be single-stranded or double-stranded, but preferably is double-stranded DNA.

The term “isolated nucleic acid molecule” includes nucleic acid molecules which are separated from other nucleic acid molecules which are present in the natural source of the nucleic acid. For example, with regards to genomic DNA, the term “isolated” includes nucleic acid molecules which are separated from the chromosome with which the genomic DNA is naturally associated. Preferably, an “isolated” nucleic acid is free of sequences which naturally flank the nucleic acid (i.e., sequences located at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the nucleic acid) in the genomic DNA of the organism from which the nucleic acid is derived. Moreover, an “isolated” nucleic acid molecule, such as a cDNA molecule, can be substantially free of other cellular material, or culture medium, when produced by recombinant techniques, or substantially free of chemical precursors or other chemicals when chemically synthesized.

A nucleic acid molecule of the present invention, e.g., a nucleic acid molecule having the nucleotide sequence set forth in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12, or a portion thereof, can be isolated using standard molecular biology techniques and the sequence information provided herein. Using all or portion of the nucleic acid sequence set forth in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12 as a hybridization probe, the nucleic acid molecules of the present invention can be isolated using standard hybridization and cloning techniques (e.g., as described in Sambrook, J., Fritsh, E. F., and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd, ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989).

Moreover, a nucleic acid molecule encompassing all or a portion of the sequence set forth in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12, can be isolated by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using synthetic oligonucleotide primers designed based upon the sequence set forth in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12.

A nucleic acid of the invention can be amplified using cDNA, mRNA or, alternatively, genomic DNA as a template and appropriate oligonucleotide primers according to standard PCR amplification techniques. The nucleic acid so amplified can be cloned into an appropriate vector and characterized by DNA sequence analysis. Furthermore, oligonucleotides corresponding to the nucleotide sequences of the present invention can be prepared by standard synthetic techniques, e.g., using an automated DNA synthesizer.

In another preferred embodiment, an isolated nucleic acid molecule of the invention comprises a nucleic acid molecule which is a complement of the nucleotide sequence set forth in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12, or a portion of any of these nucleotide sequences. A nucleic acid molecule which is complementary to the nucleotide sequence shown in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12 is one which is sufficiently complementary to the nucleotide sequence shown in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12, such that it can hybridize to the nucleotide sequence shown in FIGS. 10, 11, and 12, respectively, thereby forming a stable duplex.

“Homology” or alternatively “identity” refers to sequence similarity between two nucleic acid molecules. Homology may be determined by comparing a position in each sequence, which may be aligned for purposes of comparison. When a position in the compared sequence is occupied by the same base, then the molecules are homologous at that position. A degree of homology between sequences is a function of the number of matching or homologous positions shared by the sequences.

The term “percent identical” refers to sequence identity between two nucleotide sequences. Identity may be determined by comparing a position in each sequence, which may be aligned for purposes of comparison. When an equivalent position in the compared sequences is occupied by the same base or amino acid, then the molecules are identical at that position; when the equivalent site is occupied by the same or a similar base (e.g., similar in steric and/or electronic nature), then the molecules may be referred to as homologous (similar) at that position. Expression as a percentage of homology, similarity, or identity refers to a function of the number of identical or similar amino acids at positions shared by the compared sequences. Various alignment algorithms and/or programs may be used, including FASTA, BLAST, or ENTREZ. FASTA and BLAST are available as a part of the GCG sequence analysis package (University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.), and may be used with, e.g., default settings. ENTREZ is available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. In one embodiment, the percent identity of two sequences may be determined by the GCG program with a gap weight of 1, e.g., each nucleic acid gap is weighted as if it were a single nucleotide mismatch between the two sequences. Other techniques for alignment are described in Methods in Enzymology, vol. 266: Computer Methods for Macromolecular Sequence Analysis (1996), ed. Doolittle, Academic Press, Inc., a division of Harcourt Brace & Co., San Diego, Calif., USA. Preferably, an alignment program that permits gaps in the sequence is utilized to align the sequences. The Smith-Waterman is one type of algorithm that permits gaps in sequence alignments. See Meth. Mol. Biol. 70: 173-187 (1997). Also, the GAP program using the Needleman and Wunsch alignment method may be utilized to align sequences. An alternative search strategy uses MPSRCH software, which runs on a MASPAR computer. MPSRCH uses a Smith-Waterman algorithm to score sequences on a massively parallel computer. This approach improves the ability to pick up distantly related matches, and is especially tolerant of small gaps and nucleotide sequence errors. Nucleic acid-encoded amino acid sequences may be used to search both protein and DNA databases. Databases with individual sequences are described in Methods in Enzymology, ed. Doolittle, supra. Databases include Genbank, EMBL, and DNA Database of Japan (DDBJ).

The terms “polynucleotide”, and “nucleic acid” are used interchangeably to refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, or analogs thereof. The following are non-limiting examples of polynucleotides: coding or non-coding regions of a gene or gene fragment, loci (locus) defined from linkage analysis, exons, introns, messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, ribozymes, cDNA, recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides, plasmids, vectors, isolated DNA of any sequence, isolated RNA of any sequence, nucleic acid probes, and primers. A polynucleotide may comprise modified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and nucleotide analogs. If present, modifications to the nucleotide structure may be imparted before or after assembly of the polymer. The sequence of nucleotides may be interrupted by non-nucleotide components. A polynucleotide may be further modified after polymerization, such as by conjugation with a labeling component. The term “recombinant” polynucleotide means a polynucleotide of genomic, cDNA, semi-synthetic, or synthetic origin, which either does not occur in nature or is linked to another polynucleotide in a non-natural arrangement. An “oligonucleotide” refers to a single stranded polynucleotide having less than about 100 nucleotides, less than about, e.g., 75, 50, 25, or 10 nucleotides.

The term “specifically hybridizes” refers to detectable and specific nucleic acid binding. Polynucleotides, oligonucleotides and nucleic acids of the invention selectively hybridize to nucleic acid strands under hybridization and wash conditions that minimize appreciable amounts of detectable binding to nonspecific nucleic acids. Stringent conditions may be used to achieve selective hybridization conditions as known in the art and discussed herein. Generally, the nucleic acid sequence homology between the polynucleotides, oligonucleotides, and nucleic acids of the invention and a nucleic acid sequence of interest will be at least 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or more. In certain instances, hybridization and washing conditions are performed under stringent conditions according to conventional hybridization procedures and as described further herein.

The terms “stringent conditions” or “stringent hybridization conditions” refer to conditions, which promote specific hybridization between two complementary polynucleotide strands so as to form a duplex. Stringent conditions may be selected to be about 5° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for a given polynucleotide duplex at a defined ionic strength and pH. The length of the complementary polynucleotide strands and their GC content will determine the Tm of the duplex, and thus the hybridization conditions necessary for obtaining a desired specificity of hybridization. The Tm is the temperature (under defined ionic strength and pH) at which 50% of a polynucleotide sequence hybridizes to a perfectly matched complementary strand. In certain cases it may be desirable to increase the stringency of the hybridization conditions to be about equal to the Tm for a particular duplex.

A variety of techniques for estimating the Tm are available. Typically, G-C base pairs in a duplex are estimated to contribute about 3° C. to the Tm, while A-T base pairs are estimated to contribute about 2° C., up to a theoretical maximum of about 80-100° C. However, more sophisticated models of Tm are available in which G-C stacking interactions, solvent effects, the desired assay temperature and the like are taken into account. For example, probes can be designed to have a dissociation temperature (Td) of approximately 60° C., using the formula: Td=(((((3×#GC)+(2×#AT))×37)−562)/#bp)−5; where #GC, #AT, and #bp are the number of guanine-cytosine base pairs, the number of adenine-thymine base pairs, and the number of total base pairs, respectively, involved in the formation of the duplex.

Hybridization may be carried out in 5×SSC, 4×SSC, 3×SSC, 2×SSC, 1×SSC or 0.2×SSC for at least about 1 hour, 2 hours, 5 hours, 12 hours, or 24 hours. The temperature of the hybridization may be increased to adjust the stringency of the reaction, for example, from about 25° C. (room temperature), to about 45° C., 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., or 65° C. The hybridization reaction may also include another agent affecting the stringency, for example, hybridization conducted in the presence of 50% formamide increases the stringency of hybridization at a defined temperature.

The hybridization reaction may be followed by a single wash step, or two or more wash steps, which may be at the same or a different salinity and temperature. For example, the temperature of the wash may be increased to adjust the stringency from about 25° C. (room temperature), to about 45° C., 50° C., 55° C., 60° C., 65° C., or higher. The wash step may be conducted in the presence of a detergent, e.g., 0.1 or 0.2% SDS. For example, hybridization may be followed by two wash steps at 65° C. each for about 20 minutes in 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS, and optionally two additional wash steps at 65° C. each for about 20 minutes in 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS.

Exemplary stringent hybridization conditions include overnight hybridization at 65° C. in a solution comprising, or consisting of, 50% formamide, 10×Denhardt (0.2% Ficoll, 0.2% Polyvinylpyrrolidone, 0.2% bovine serum albumin) and 200 μg/ml of denatured carrier DNA, e.g., sheared salmon sperm DNA, followed by two wash steps at 65° C. each for about 20 minutes in 2×SSC, 0.1% SDS, and two wash steps at 65° C. each for about 20 minutes in 0.2×SSC, 0.1% SDS.

Hybridization may consist of hybridizing two nucleic acids in solution, or a nucleic acid in solution to a nucleic acid attached to a solid support, e.g., a filter. When one nucleic acid is on a solid support, a prehybridization step may be conducted prior to hybridization. Prehybridization may be carried out for at least about 1 hour, 3 hours or 10 hours in the same solution and at the same temperature as the hybridization solution (without the complementary polynucleotide strand).

Appropriate stringency conditions are known to those skilled in the art or may be determined experimentally by the skilled artisan. See, for example, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. (1989), 6.3.1-12.3.6; Sambrook et al., 1989, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Press, N.Y.; S. Agrawal (ed.) Methods in Molecular Biology, volume 20; Tijssen (1993) Laboratory Techniques in biochemistry and molecular biology-hybridization with nucleic acid probes, e.g., part I chapter 2 “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid probe assays”, Elsevier, New York; and Tibanyenda, N. et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 139:19 (1984) and Ebel, S. et al., Biochem. 31:12083 (1992).

The term “substantially homologous” when used in connection with a nucleic acid or amino acid sequences, refers to sequences which are substantially identical to or similar in sequence with each other, giving rise to a homology of conformation and thus to retention, to a useful degree, of one or more biological (including immunological) activities. The term is not intended to imply a common evolution of the sequences.

Recombinant Expression Vectors and Host Cells. Another aspect of the invention pertains to vectors, preferably expression vectors, containing a nucleic acid molecule of the present invention (or a portion thereof). As used herein, the term “vector” refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. One type of vector is a “plasmid”, which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments can be ligated. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein additional DNA segments can be ligated into the viral genome. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g., bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as “expression vectors”. In general, expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids. In the present specification, “plasmid” and “vector” can be used interchangeably as the plasmid is the most commonly used form of vector. However, the invention is intended to include such other forms of expression vectors, such as viral vectors (e.g., replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses and adeno-associated viruses), which serve equivalent functions.

The recombinant expression vectors of the invention comprise a nucleic acid of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory sequences, selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, which is operatively linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinant expression vector, “operably linked” is intended to mean that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory sequence(s) in a manner which allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g., in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell when the vector is introduced into the host cell). The term “regulatory sequence” is intended to include promoters, enhancers and other expression control elements (e.g., polyadenylation signals). Such regulatory sequences are described, for example, in Goeddel (1990) Methods Enzymol. 185:3-7. Regulatory sequences include those which direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cells and those which direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression of protein desired, and the like. The expression vectors of the invention can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce proteins or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein.

Expression of proteins in prokaryotes is most often carried out in E. coli with vectors containing constitutive or inducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion or non-fusion proteins. Fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to a protein encoded therein, usually to the amino terminus of the recombinant protein. Such fusion vectors typically serve three purposes: 1) to increase expression of recombinant protein; 2) to increase the solubility of the recombinant protein; and 3) to aid in the purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand in affinity purification. Often, in fusion expression vectors, a proteolytic cleavage site is introduced at the junction of the fusion moiety and the recombinant protein to enable separation of the recombinant protein from the fusion moiety subsequent to purification of the fusion protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognition sequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Typical fusion expression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith, D. B. and Johnson, K. S. (1988) Gene 67:31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.) and pRIT5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) which fuse glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A, respectively, to the target recombinant protein.

Examples of suitable inducible non-fusion E. coli expression vectors include pTrc (Amann et al. (1988) Gene 69:301-315) and pET 11d (Studier et al. (1990) Methods Enzymol. 185:60-89). Target gene expression from the pTrc vector relies on host RNA polymerase transcription from a hybrid trp-lac fusion promoter. Target gene expression from the pET 11d vector relies on transcription from a T7 gn10-lac fusion promoter mediated by a coexpressed viral RNA polymerase (T7 gn1). This viral polymerase is supplied by host strains BL21(DE3) or HMS174(DE3) from a resident prophage harboring a T7 gn1 gene under the transcriptional control of the lacUV 5 promoter.

One strategy to maximize recombinant protein expression in E. coli is to express the protein in a host bacteria with an impaired capacity to proteolytically cleave the recombinant protein (Gottesman, S. (1990) Methods Enzymol. 185:119-128). Another strategy is to alter the nucleic acid sequence of the nucleic acid to be inserted into an expression vector so that the individual codons for each amino acid are those preferentially utilized in E. coli (Wada et al. (1992) Nucleic Acids Res. 20:2111-2118). Such alteration of nucleic acid sequences of the invention can be carried out by standard DNA synthesis techniques.

In another embodiment, the expression vector may be a yeast expression vector. Examples of vectors for expression in yeast S. cerevisiae include pYepSec1 (Baldari et al. (1987) Embo J. 6:229-234), pMFa (Kurjan and Herskowitz (1982) Cell 30:933-943), pJRY88 (Schultz et al. (1987) Gene 54:113-123), pYES2 (Invitrogen Corporation, San Diego, Calif.), and picZ (Invitrogen Corp, San Diego, Calif.).

In yet another embodiment, a nucleic acid of the invention is expressed in mammalian cells using a mammalian expression vector. Examples of mammalian expression vectors include pCDM8 (Seed, B. (1987) Nature 329:840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman et al. (1987) EMBO J. 6:187-195). When used in mammalian cells, the expression vector's control functions are often provided by viral regulatory elements. For example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma, Adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus and Simian Virus 40. For other suitable expression systems for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells see chapters 16 and 17 of Sambrook, J. et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.

In another embodiment, the recombinant mammalian expression vector is capable of directing expression of the nucleic acid preferentially in a particular cell type (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory elements are used to express the nucleic acid). Tissue-specific regulatory elements are known in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable tissue-specific promoters include the albumin promoter (liver-specific; Pinkert et al. (1987) Genes Dev. 1:268-277), lymphoid-specific promoters (Calame and Eaton (1988) Adv. Immunol. 43:235-275), particular promoters of T cell receptors (Winoto and Baltimore (1989) EMBO J. 8:729-733) and immunoglobulins (Banerji et al. (1983) Cell 33:729-740; Queen and Baltimore (1983) Cell 33:741-748), neuron-specific promoters (e.g., the neurofilament promoter; Byrne and Ruddle (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:5473-5477), pancreas-specific promoters (Edlund et al. (1985) Science 230:912-916), and mammary gland-specific promoters (e.g., milk whey promoter; U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,316 and European Application Publication No. 264,166). Developmentally-regulated promoters are also encompassed, for example by the murine hox promoters (Kessel and Gruss (1990) Science 249:374-379).

Another aspect of the invention pertains to host cells into which a the nucleic acid molecule of the invention is introduced. The terms “host cell” and “recombinant host cell” are used interchangeably herein. It is understood that such terms refer not only to the particular subject cell but to the progeny or potential progeny of such a cell. Because certain modifications may occur in succeeding generations due to either mutation or environmental influences, such progeny may not, in fact, be identical to the parent cell, but are still included within the scope of the term as used herein.

A host cell can be any prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell. Other suitable host cells are known to those skilled in the art.

Vector DNA can be introduced into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells via conventional transformation or transfection techniques. As used herein, the terms “transformation” and “transfection” are intended to refer to a variety of art-recognized techniques for introducing foreign nucleic acid (e.g., DNA) into a host cell, including calcium phosphate or calcium chloride co-precipitation, DEAE-dextran-mediated transfection, lipofection, or electroporation. Suitable methods for transforming or transfecting host cells can be found in Sambrook et al. (Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd, ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989), and other laboratory manuals.

For stable transfection of mammalian cells, it is known that, depending upon the expression vector and transfection technique used, only a small fraction of cells may integrate the foreign DNA into their genome. In order to identify and select these integrants, a gene that encodes a selectable marker (e.g., resistance to antibiotics) is generally introduced into the host cells along with the gene of interest. Nucleic acid encoding a selectable marker can be introduced into a host cell on the same vector as that encoding a protein or can be introduced on a separate vector. Cells stably transfected with the introduced nucleic acid can be identified by drug selection (e.g., cells that have incorporated the selectable marker gene will survive, while the other cells die).

Making P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA active in E. coli. As already mentioned herein, a plasmid comprising the 16S rRNA gene from P. aeruginosa, mutated to replace the natural helix 9 region with the corresponding region of the E. coli rRNA, is provided to form functional mutant ribosomes. In addition, in certain embodiments, a plasmid comprising the Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 protein is provided, thereby yielding functional ribosomes in E. coli cells.

There are many different ribosomal proteins. The 30S ribosomal proteins are designated S1-S21. It is known that S4, S7, S8, S15, S17 and S20 bind independently to 16S rRNA. Binding of these primary binding proteins folds the rRNA and allows binding of the secondary binding proteins (S5, S6, S9, S12, S13, S16, S18, and S19). These proteins also fold the ribosome to allow the addition of S2, S3, S10, S11, S14 and S21 (which are known as tertiary binding proteins).

The ribosomal protein S20 binding site on P. aeruginosa are shown in FIG. 16. 16S rRNA Protein alignments for E. coli and P. aeruginosa are shown in FIG. 17. As shown therein, S20's pH2 and pH3 interact with H9 of the 16S rRNA. It is hypothesized that charge differences between E. coli and P. aeruginosa S20 composition may play a role in binding of the protein to the rRNA.

The expression of P. aeruginosa S20 can be made in the presence of E. coli and P. aeruginosa 16S RNA. One begins by obtaining chromosomal DNA from P. aeruginosa. Then the S20 gene is PCRed. Next, this gene is cloned into an expression vector. Finally, the plasmid containing the S20 gene is transformed in cells (e.g. DH5 cells) containing the 16S rRNA of E. coli and P. aeruginosa, and the activity is measured. A schematic of this process is shown in FIG. 18. GFP analysis of P. aeruginosa (46% activity of ribosomes without P. aeruginosa S20 and 96.4% activity of ribosomes with P. aeruginosa S20) confirms that P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA is complemented by P. aeruginosa S20. When the vector only was assayed (i.e. no S20) no increase in ribosomal activity was observed.

P. aeruginosa 16S rRNAs may therefore be made active in E. coli by replacing helix 9 of P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA with the corresponding sequence from E. coli or by adding P. aeruginosa S20 to cells that are making the P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA. Both constructs can be used to develop antibiotics that target P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA.

Making other pathogen's 16S rRNA active in E. coli. Given P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA can be fully expressed in E. coli, it is likely that the rRNAs from other pathogens (e.g. Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria) can also be expressed in E. coli. This will facilitate the identification of new antibiotic targets, and therefore new classes of antibiotics which are less susceptible to the development of resistance. The inventive system described herein can be used to identify antibiotic leads that disrupt the interaction between critical nucleotides of pathogenic 16S rRNA and the critical amino acids on ribosomal proteins (such as critical nucleotides on P. aeruginosa 16S rRNA and P. aeruginosa S20). An antibiotic developed in this manner with specifically target the pathogen used, and its close relatives, without effecting other bacteria.

Uses and Methods of the Invention. The nucleic acid molecules described herein may be used in a plasmid construct, e.g. pRNA228, to carry out one or more of the following methods: (1) creation of a functional genomics database of the rRNA genes generated by the methods of the present invention; (2) mining of the database to identify functionally important regions of the rRNA; (3) identification of functionally important sequences and structural motifs within each target region; (4) screening compounds and compound libraries against a series of functional variants of the target sequence to identify compounds that bind to all functional variants of the target sequence; and (5) counterscreening the compounds against nontarget RNAs, such as human ribosomes or ribosomal RNA sequences.

One aspect of the invention relates to a plasmid comprising a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence.

Another aspect of the invention relates to the plasmid of FIG. 1.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a plasmid comprising a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence.

Another aspect of the invention relates to the plasmid of FIG. 2.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the selectable marker is chosen from the group consisting of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), green fluorescent protein (GFP), and both CAT and GFP.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein said mutant helix 9 sequence is SEQ ID NO: 1.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence is selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and 12.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence is selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and 12.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and the mutant SD sequence are a complementary pair selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and 12.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the complementary mutant Shine-Dalgarno and mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno pair permits translation by the rRNA of the selectable marker.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the selectable marker is CAT.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the selectable marker is GFP.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the DNA sequence encoding the rRNA gene is under the control of an inducible promoter.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a plasmid of FIG. 3 or 4.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising aph (3′)-la (kanamycin resistance) gene.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the terminator T1 and terminator T2 of the Escherichia coli rrnA, rrnB, rrnC, rrnD, rrnE, rrnG or rrnH operon; or a T1 terminator from one and a T2 terminator from another.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, comprising an operon from a bacteria.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the terminator T1 and terminator T2 of the Escherichia coli rrnB operon.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the terminator T1 and terminator T2 of the Escherichia coli rrnC operon.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the terminator T1 and terminator T2 of an Escherichia coli rrn operon.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the pBAD promoter and the AraC activator.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, further comprising the Shine-Dalgarno sequence GAGGA.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned plasmid, wherein the DNA sequence encoding the rRNA gene is under the control of an inducible promoter.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a cell comprising an aforementioned plasmid. In certain embodiments said cell comprises a plasmid which comprises a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence. In certain embodiments said cell comprises a plasmid which comprises a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a cell comprising two of the aforementioned plasmids. In certain embodiments said cell comprises a plasmid which comprises a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and a plasmid which comprises a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned cell, wherein the mutations in the rRNA gene affect the quantity of selectable marker produced.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned cell, wherein the cell is a bacterial cell.

In certain embodiments the present invention relates to the aforementioned cell, wherein the cell is an E. coli cell.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids,         each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA         gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable             marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno             sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host         cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids,         each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA         gene and a green fluorescent protein gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said green fluorescent             protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno             sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host         cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product;         and     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable             marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno             sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the selectable marker gene product;     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant         Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa         S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (g) those host cells which express the selectable marker         gene product; and     -   (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (h), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug         targets.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein         gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green             fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene         product;     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second         mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa         S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (g) those host cells which express the green fluorescent         protein gene product; and     -   (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (h), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug         targets.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying drug candidates comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable             marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno             sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the selectable marker gene product;     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant         Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa         S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (g) those host cells which express the selectable marker         gene product;     -   (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (h), to identify the mutated         regions of interest;     -   (j) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest         from step (i) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (k) identifying the compounds from step (j) that bind to the         mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype         Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (l) screening the compounds from step (k) against human 16S         rRNA; and     -   (m) identifying the drug candidates from step (l) that do not         bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying drug candidates comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein         gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant             Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green             fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid         comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene;     -   (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene         product;     -   (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second         mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa         S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (g) those host cells which express the green fluorescent         protein gene product;     -   (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (h), to identify the mutated         regions of interest;     -   (j) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest         from step (i) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (k) identifying the compounds from step (j) that bind to the         mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype         Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (l) screening the compounds from step (k) against human 16S         rRNA; and     -   (m) identifying the drug candidates from step (l) that do not         bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids,         each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA         gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host         cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids,         each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA         gene and a green fluorescent protein gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host         cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product;         and     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the selectable marker gene product;     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (c) are         mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant         Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (f) those host cells which express the selectable marker         gene product; and     -   (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (g), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug         targets.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein         gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first             mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene         product;     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second         mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (f) those host cells which express the green fluorescent         protein gene product; and     -   (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (g), thereby identifying         functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug         targets.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying drug candidates comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant             Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the selectable marker gene product;     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (c) are         mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant         Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (f) those host cells which express the selectable marker         gene product;     -   (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (g), to identify the mutated         regions of interest;     -   (i) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest         from step (h) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (j) identifying the compounds from step (i) that bind to the         mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype         Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (k) screening the compounds from step (j) against human 16S         rRNA; and     -   (l) identifying the drug candidates from step (k) that do not         bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.

Another aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying drug candidates comprising:

-   -   (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of         plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas         aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein         gene;         -   wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene             comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence,             and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said             first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first             mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and         -   wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and             said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually             compatible pair;         -   thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells;     -   (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those         host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene         product;     -   (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of         interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of         one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first         mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced;     -   (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S         rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are         mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene         further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence;     -   (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa         16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from         step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids         further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which         encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second         mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant         Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno         sequence are a mutually compatible pair;     -   (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids         from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host         cells;     -   (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from         step (f) those host cells which express the green fluorescent         protein gene product;     -   (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from         each host cell isolated in step (g), to identify the mutated         regions of interest;     -   (i) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest         from step (h) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (j) identifying the compounds from step (i) that bind to the         mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype         Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA;     -   (k) screening the compounds from step (j) against human 16S         rRNA; and     -   (l) identifying the drug candidates from step (k) that do not         bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.

This invention is further illustrated by the following examples, which should not be construed as limiting. The contents of all references, patents and published patent applications cited throughout this application, as well as the Figures and Appendices, are incorporated herein by reference.

EXEMPLIFICATION Example 1 Identification of Mutant SD and Mutant ASD Combinations

It has been shown that by coordinately changing the SD and ASD, a particular mRNA containing an altered SD could be targeted to ribosomes containing the altered ASD. This and all other efforts to modify the ASD, however, have proved lethal, as cells containing these mutations died within two hours after the genes containing them were activated.

Using random mutagenesis and genetic selection, mutant SD-ASD combinations are screened in order to identify non-lethal SD-ASD combinations. The mutant SD-ASD mutually compatible pairs are set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and 12. The mutually compatible pairs of mutant sequences interact as pairs in the form of RNA. The novel mutant SD-ASD sequence combinations of the present invention permit translation of only the mRNAs containing the altered SD sequence.

Example 2A Construction of the Pa 16S pRNA228 Plasmid

A plasmid construct of the present invention identified as the Pa 16S pRNA228 plasmid, is set forth in FIGS. 1 and 6. E. coli cells contain a single chromosome with seven copies of the rRNA genes and all of the genes for the ribosomal proteins. The plasmid, Pa 16S pRNA228, in the cell contains a genetically engineered copy of one of the 16S rRNA genes from P. aeruginosa and two genetically engineered genes that are not normally found in E. coli, referred to herein as a “selectable markers.” One gene encodes the protein chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT). This protein renders cells resistant to chloramphenicol by chemically modifying the antibiotic. Another gene, the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), is also included in the system. GFP facilitates high-throughput functional analysis. The amount of green light produced upon irradiation with ultraviolet light is proportional to the amount of GFP present in the cell.

Ribosomes from Pa 16S pRNA228 have an altered ASD sequence. Therefore, the ribosomes can only translate mRNAs that have an altered SD sequence. Only two genes in the cell produce mRNAs with altered SD sequences that may be translated by the plasmid-encoded ribosomes: the CAT and GFP gene. Mutations in rRNA affect the ability of the resulting mutant ribosome to make protein. The present invention thus provides a system whereby the mutations in the plasmid-encoded rRNA gene only affect the amount of GFP and CAT produced. A decrease in plasmid ribosome function makes the cell more sensitive to chloramphenicol and reduces the amount of green fluorescence of the cells. Translation of the other mRNAs in the cell is unaffected since these mRNAs are translated only by ribosomes that come from the chromosome. Hence, cells containing functional mutants may be identified and isolated via the selectable marker.

Example 2B Construction of the Pa 16S pRNA228 Plasmid

A plasmid construct of the present invention identified as the Pa 16S Ec H9 pRNA228 plasmid, is set forth in FIGS. 2 and 7. E. coli cells contain a single chromosome with seven copies of the rRNA genes and all of the genes for the ribosomal proteins. The plasmid, Pa 16S Ec H9 pRNA228, in the cell contains a genetically engineered copy of one of the 16S rRNA genes from P. aeruginosa wherein the P. aeruginosa helix 9 sequence has been replaced with the corresponding E. coli sequence, and two genetically engineered genes that are not normally found in E. coli, referred to herein as a “selectable markers.” One gene encodes the protein chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT). This protein renders cells resistant to chloramphenicol by chemically modifying the antibiotic. Another gene, the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), is also included in the system. GFP facilitates high-throughput functional analysis. The amount of green light produced upon irradiation with ultraviolet light is proportional to the amount of GFP present in the cell.

Ribosomes from Pa 16S Ec H9 pRNA228 have an altered ASD sequence. Therefore, the ribosomes can only translate mRNAs that have an altered SD sequence. Only two genes in the cell produce mRNAs with altered SD sequences that may be translated by the plasmid-encoded ribosomes: the CAT and GFP gene. Mutations in rRNA affect the ability of the resulting mutant ribosome to make protein. The present invention thus provides a system whereby the mutations in the plasmid-encoded rRNA gene only affect the amount of GFP and CAT produced. A decrease in plasmid ribosome function makes the cell more sensitive to chloramphenicol and reduces the amount of green fluorescence of the cells. Translation of the other mRNAs in the cell is unaffected since these mRNAs are translated only by ribosomes that come from the chromosome. Hence, cells containing functional mutants may be identified and isolated via the selectable marker.

Example 2C Construction of the pKan5-T1T2 and pKanPa-S20 Plasmid

A plasmid construct of the present invention identified as the pKan5-T1T2 plasmid, is set forth in FIGS. 3 and 8. The plasmid, pKan5-T1T2, is a PACYC177 derivative. It was used in the preparation of the pKanPa-S20 plasmid, which encodes the P. aeruginosa S20 protein, which is set forth in FIGS. 4 and 9.

Example 3 Genetic System for Functional Analysis of Ribosomal RNA

Identification of Functionally Important Regions of rRNA. Functionally important regions of rRNA molecules that may be used as drug targets using a functional genomics approach may be identified through a series of steps. Namely, in step I.a., the entire rRNA gene is randomly mutated using error-prone PCR or another generalized mutational strategy. In step I.b., a host cell is then transformed with a mutagenized plasmid comprising: an rRNA gene having a mutant ASD sequence, at least one mutation in said rRNA gene, and a genetically engineered gene which encodes a selectable marker having a mutant SD sequence, and production of the rRNA genes from the plasmid are induced by growing the cells in the presence of IPTG. In step I.c., the CAT gene is used to select mutants that are functional by plating the transformed cells onto growth medium containing chloramphenicol. In step I.d., individual clones from each of the colonies obtained in step I.c. are isolated. In step I.e., the plasmid DNA from each of the individual clones from step I.d. is isolated. In step I.f., the rRNA genes contained in each of the plasmids that had been isolated in step I.e. are sequenced. In step I.g., the function of each of the mutants from step I.f. is assessed by measuring the amount of GFP produced by each clone from step I.e. upon induction of the rRNA operon. In step I.h., a functional genomics database is assembled containing the sequence and functional data from steps I.f. and I.g. In step I.i., functionally important regions of the rRNA gene that will serve as drug targets are identified. Functionally important regions may be identified by comparing the sequences of all of the functional genomics database constructed in step I.g. and correlating the sequence with the amount of GFP protein produced. Contiguous sequences of three or more rRNA nucleotides, in which substitution of the nucleotides in the region produces significant loss of function, will constitute a functionally important region and therefore a potential drug target. Helix 9 (SEQ ID NO 1 and SEQ ID NO 2) is a functional important region, as shown herein, and is therefore a potential drug target.

Isolation of Functional Variants of the Target Regions. A second aspect of the invention features identification of mutations of the target site that might lead to antibiotic resistance using a process termed, “instant evolution”, as described below. In step II.a., for a given target region identified in step I.i., each of the nucleotides in the target region is simultaneously randomly mutated using standard methods of molecular mutagenesis, such as cassette mutagenesis or PCR mutagenesis, and cloned into the plasmid of step I.b. to form a plasmid pool containing random mutations at each of the nucleotide positions in the target region. In step II.b., the resulting pool of plasmids containing random mutations from step II.a. is used to transform E. coli cells and form a library of clones, each of which contains a unique combination of mutations in the target region. In step II.c., the library of mutant clones from step II.b. is grown in the presence of IPTG to induce production of the mutant rRNA genes. In step II.d., the induced mutants are plated on medium containing chloramphenicol, and CAT is used to select clones of rRNA mutants containing nucleotide combinations of the target region that produce functional ribosomes. In step II.e., the functional clones isolated in step II.d. are sequenced and GFP is used to measure ribosome function in each one. In step II.f., the data from step II.e. are incorporated into a mutational database.

Isolation of Drug Leads. In step III.a., the database in step II.f. is analyzed to identify functionally-important nucleotides and nucleotide motifs within the target region. In step III.b., the information from step III.a. is used to synthesize a series of oligonucleotides that contain the functionally important nucleotides and nucleotide motifs identified in step III.a. In step III.c., the oligonucleotides from step III.b. are used to sequentially screen compounds and compound libraries to identify compounds that recognize (bind to) the functionally important sequences and motifs. In step III.d., compounds that bind to all of the oligonucleotides are counterscreened against oligonucleotides and/or other RNA containing molecules to identify drug candidates. “Drug candidates” are compounds that 1) bind to all of the oligonucleotides containing the functionally important nucleotides and nucleotide motifs, but do not bind to molecules that do not contain the functionally important nucleotides and nucleotide motifs and 2) do not recognize human ribosomes. Drug candidates selected by the methods of the present invention therefore recognize all of the functional variants of the target sequence, i.e., the target cannot be mutated in a way that the drug cannot bind, without causing loss of function to the ribosome.

Example 4 Genetic System for Studying Protein Synthesis

All plasmids are maintained and expressed in E. coli DH5 (e.g. supE44, hsdR17, recA1, endA1, gyrA96, thi-1 and relA1; Hanahan, D. (1983) J. Mol. Biol. 166:557-580). To induce synthesis of plasmid-derived rRNA from the lacUV5 promoter, IPTG is added to a final concentration of 1 mM. Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase activity will be determined essentially as described by Nielsen et al. (1989) Anal. Biochem. 179: 19-23. Cultures for CAT assays are grown in LB-Ap100. MIC will be determined by standard methods in microtiter plates as described in Lee, K., et al. (1997) J. Mol. Biol. 269: 732-743. Procedures are followed as in outlined in Example 4 of Cunningham et al. (WO 2004/003511).

Example 5 In Vivo Determination of RNA Structure-Function Relationships

Bacterial strains and media. Plasmids are maintained and expressed in E. coli DH5 (e.g. supE44, hsdR17, recA1, endA1, gyrA9 and thi-1; Hanahan, D. (1983) J. Mol. Biol. 166:557-580). Cultures are grown in LB medium (Luria, S. E. & Burrous, J. W. (1957) J. Bacteriol. 74:461-476) or LB medium containing 100 μg/ml ampicillin (LB-Ap100). To induce synthesis of plasmid-derived rRNA from the lacUV5 promoter, IPTG is added to a final concentration of 1 mM at the times indicated in each experiment. Strains are transformed by electroporation (Dower, W. J., et al. (1988) Nucl. Acids Res. 16: 6127) using a Gibco-BRL Cell Porator. Transformants are grown in SOC medium (Hanahan, 1983, supra) for one hour prior to plating on selective medium to allow expression of plasmid-derived genes.

Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase assays. CAT activity is determined essentially as described (Nielsen, D. A. et al. (1989) Anal. Biochem. 60:191-227). Cultures for CAT assays will be grown in LB-Ap100. Briefly, 0.5 ml aliquots of mid-log cultures (unless otherwise indicated) is added to an equal volume of 500 mM Tris-HCl (pH8) and lysed using 0.01% (w/v) SDS and chloroform (Miller, J. H. (1992) A Short Course in Bacterial Genetics, (Miller, J. H., ed.), pp. 71-80, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.). The resulting lysate is either be used directly or diluted in assay buffer prior to use. Assay mixtures contain cell extract (5 μl or 10 μl), 250 mM Tris (pH 8), 214 μM butyryl-coenzyme A (Bu-CoA), and 40 μM [³H]chloramphenicol in a 125 μl volume. Two concentrations of lysate are assayed for one hour at 37° C. to ensure that the signal was proportional to protein concentrations. The product, butyryl-[³H]chloramphenicol is extracted into 2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane:xylenes (2:1) and measured directly in a Beckman LS-3801 liquid scintillation counter. Blanks are prepared exactly as described above, except that uninoculated LB medium was used instead of culture.

Minimum inhibitory concentration determination. MICs are determined by standard methods in microtiter plates or on solid medium. Overnight cultures grown in LB-Ap100 are diluted and induced in the same medium containing 1 mM IPTG for three hours. Approximately 10⁴ induced cells are then added to wells (or spotted onto solid medium) containing LB-Ap100+IPTG (1 mM) and chloramphenicol at increasing concentrations. Cultures are grown for 24 hours and the lowest concentration of chloramphenicol that completely inhibited growth is designated as the MIC.

Oligoribonucleotide synthesis. Oligoribonucleotides are synthesized on solid support with the phosphoramidite method (Capaldi, D. & Reese, C. (1994) Nucl. Acids Res. 22:2209-2216) on a Cruachem PS 250 DNA/RNA synthesizer. Oligomers are removed from solid support and deprotected by treatment with ammonia and acid following the manufacturer's recommendations. The RNA is purified on a silica gel Si500F TLC plate (Baker) eluted for five hours with n-propanol/ammonia/water (55:35:10, by vol.). Bands are visualized with an ultraviolet lamp and the least mobile band was cut out and eluted three times with 1 ml of purified water. Oligomers are further purified with a Sep-pak C-18 cartridge (Waters) and desalted by continuous-flow dialysis (BRL). Purities are checked by analytical C-8 HPLC (Perceptive Biosystems).

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All of the references including, without limitation, U.S. patents, U.S. patent application publications, published international applications and journal articles cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims. 

1. A plasmid comprising a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence.
 2. A plasmid comprising a first nucleic acid sequence and a second nucleic acid sequence; wherein said first nucleic acid sequence encodes a Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA comprising a mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and at least one additional mutation outside the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno region; and said second sequence encodes a selectable marker having a mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; wherein said mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno specifically hybridizes to said mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence.
 3. The plasmid of claim 2, wherein said mutant helix 9 sequence is SEQ ID NO:
 1. 4. The plasmid of claims 1 or 2, wherein the selectable marker is chosen from the group consisting of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), green fluorescent protein (GFP), and both CAT and GFP.
 5. The plasmid of claims 1 or 2, wherein the mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence is selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and
 12. 6. The plasmid of claims 1 or 2, wherein the mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence is selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and
 12. 7. The plasmid of claims 1 or 2, wherein the mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and the mutant SD sequence are a complementary pair selected from the group consisting of the sequences set forth in FIGS. 10, 11 and
 12. 8. The plasmid of claims 1 or 2, wherein the complementary mutant Shine-Dalgarno and mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno pair permits translation by the rRNA of the selectable marker.
 9. The plasmid of claim 1 or 2, wherein the selectable marker is CAT.
 10. The plasmid of claim 1 or 2, wherein the selectable marker is GFP.
 11. The plasmid of claim 1 or 2, wherein the DNA sequence encoding the rRNA gene is under the control of an inducible promoter.
 12. A plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene.
 13. The plasmid of claim 12, further comprising aph (3′)-la (kanamycin resistance) gene.
 14. The plasmid of claim 12, further comprising the terminator T1 and terminator T2 of the Escherichia coli rrnB operon.
 15. The plasmid of claim 12, further comprising the pBAD promoter and the AraC activator.
 16. The plasmid of claim 12, wherein the DNA sequence encoding the rRNA gene is under the control of an inducible promoter.
 17. A cell comprising the plasmid of claim 1 or
 2. 18. The cell of claim 17, wherein the mutations in the rRNA gene affect the quantity of selectable marker produced.
 19. The cell of claim 17, wherein the cell is a bacterial cell.
 20. The cell of claim 17, wherein the cell is an E. coli cell.
 21. A cell comprising the plasmids of claim 1 and
 12. 22. The cell of claim 21, wherein the mutation in the 16S rRNA gene affects the quantity of selectable marker produced.
 23. The cell of claim 21, wherein the cell is a bacterial cell.
 24. The cell of claim 21, wherein the cell is an E. coli cell.
 25. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising: (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes.
 26. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising: (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; and (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes.
 27. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (g) those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (h), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets.
 28. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (g) those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; and (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (h), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets.
 29. A method for identifying drug candidates comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (g) those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (h), to identify the mutated regions of interest; (j) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest from step (i) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (k) identifying the compounds from step (j) that bind to the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (l) screening the compounds from step (k) against human 16S rRNA; and (m) identifying the drug candidates from step (l) that do not bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.
 30. A method for identifying drug candidates comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) transforming said first set of host cells with a plasmid comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene; (c) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (d) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (c) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (e) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each rRNA gene further comprises a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (f) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (e) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (g) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (f) and plasmids comprising a Pseudomonas aeruginosa S20 gene, thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (h) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (g) those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (i) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (h), to identify the mutated regions of interest; (j) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest from step (i) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (k) identifying the compounds from step (j) that bind to the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (l) screening the compounds from step (k) against human 16S rRNA; and (m) identifying the drug candidates from step (l) that do not bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.
 31. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising: (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes.
 32. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes comprising: (a) transforming a set of host cells with a set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; and (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes.
 33. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (c) are mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (f) those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; and (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (g), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets.
 34. A method for identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (f) those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; and (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (g), thereby identifying functional mutant ribosomes that may be suitable as drug targets.
 35. A method for identifying drug candidates comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a selectable marker gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first selectable marker gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (c) are mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second selectable marker having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (f) those host cells which express the selectable marker gene product; (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (g), to identify the mutated regions of interest; (i) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (j) identifying the compounds from step (i) that bind to the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (k) screening the compounds from step (j) against human 16S rRNA; and (l) identifying the drug candidates from step (k) that do not bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates.
 36. A method for identifying drug candidates comprising: (a) transforming a first set of host cells with a first set of plasmids, each plasmid comprising a mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene and a first green fluorescent protein gene; wherein said mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene comprises at least one mutation, a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and said first green fluorescent protein gene comprises a first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence; and wherein said first mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence and said first mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; thereby forming a first set of transformed host cells; (b) isolating from the first set of transformed host cells those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (c) sequencing the mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (b) to identify regions of interest, wherein the regions of interest comprise sequences of one or more nucleic acids which are conserved in each first mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene sequenced; (d) generating a second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes wherein the regions of interest from step (d) are mutated; and each mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene further comprises a mutant helix 9 sequence, and a second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence; (e) inserting the second set of mutant Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA genes comprising the mutated regions of interest from step (d) into a second set of plasmids; wherein said plasmids further comprise a second genetically engineered gene which encodes a second green fluorescent protein having a second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence, wherein the second mutant Anti-Shine-Dalgarno and the second mutant Shine-Dalgarno sequence are a mutually compatible pair; (f) transforming a second set of host cells with the plasmids from step (e), thereby forming a second set of transformed host cells; (g) isolating from the second set of transformed host cells from step (f) those host cells which express the green fluorescent protein gene product; (h) sequencing the Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA gene from each host cell isolated in step (g), to identify the mutated regions of interest; (i) screening compounds against the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (j) identifying the compounds from step (i) that bind to the mutated regions of interest from step (h) and the wildtype Pseudomonas aeruginosa 16S rRNA; (k) screening the compounds from step (j) against human 16S rRNA; and (l) identifying the drug candidates from step (k) that do not bind to the human 16S rRNA, thereby identifying drug candidates. 